The Vietnam War introduced the world to the concept of ‘ecocide’: the annihilation of an ecosystem, and severe harm to the web of human, animal and plant life that depends on it.
This happened over a period of nine years, during which 20 million gallons of “Rainbow Herbicides” were sprayed across the jungles and food crops of Vietnam and parts of Cambodia and Laos.
The reach of these chemicals was astounding. By 1971, 12 percent of the total area of South Vietnam had been sprayed with defoliating chemicals, at an average concentration of 13 times the recommended rate for domestic use.
That works out to 39,000 square miles of agricultural land — an area the size of Kentucky — contaminated and depleted. 7,700 square miles of upland and mangrove forests — nearly the landmass of Massachusetts — rotted. Over 20% of South Vietnam’s forests were sprayed at least once.
Ninety percent of these herbicides went toward cutting the thick jungle that Viet Cong soldiers used as cover — not the food sources that were also targeted. Although environmentally catastrophic, that proved the lesser of two evils.
Overview of Agent Orange
Agent Orange was a chemical defoliant used by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War (known inside Vietnam as the “American War”) to eliminate forest cover and food sources for the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces. It was named for the orange stripe on its storage barrels — its chemical provenance was more complicated.
Agent Orange contained a mixture of the compounds 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, which was contaminated with TCDD, a dioxin. This toxic chemical is among the most dangerous compounds known to humans, capable of causing severe damage even at minute levels of exposure.
The herbicide was one of several in the Rainbow Herbicides family, which also included Agent Blue and Agent Purple. Of these, Agent Orange had the most widespread use and the longest-lasting consequences. Its deployment under Operation Ranch Hand made it a cornerstone of U.S. military strategy during the war.
Decades later, the harmful effects of dioxin exposure persist. In Vietnam, these effects are visible in the form of chronic illnesses, birth defects, and environmental degradation. American veterans and Vietnamese civilians continue to grapple with the aftermath, highlighting the human cost of this wartime strategy.
Christopher Hitchens wrote about the enduring suffering that Agent Orange continues to cause for Vanity Fair in 2006. He wrote “Agent Orange, used by the U.S. to defoliate Vietnam’s jungles, has now poisoned a third generation” nearly 20 years ago. We are now on the fourth generation.
Hitchens’ entire piece is well worth reading—the unpaywalled version is here.
Historical Context of Agent Orange Use
Agent Orange was a key component of the U.S. military’s chemical warfare strategy during the Vietnam War, aimed at removing enemy cover provided by dense jungles and cutting off food supplies to the Viet Minh and Vietnamese army. Under Operation Ranch Hand, the U.S. Air Force deployed massive amounts of herbicides, targeting areas in South and North Vietnam suspected of harboring Viet Cong forces.
In addition to the defoliation campaigns, programs involving herbicides like cacodylic acid and Agent Blue targeted crops, particularly rice fields, exacerbating food insecurity in rural areas.
Military Objectives During the “Vietnam War”
The dense jungles of Vietnam presented a major challenge for U.S. military forces. North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops used the forests for cover, transportation, and supply lines. To counter this advantage, the U.S. launched an aggressive defoliation campaign aimed at stripping these areas of vegetation. Known as Operation Ranch Hand, the campaign sought to expose enemy positions and disrupt their food supply.
Between 1961 and 1971, U.S. Air Force aircraft sprayed herbicides over large areas of South Vietnam, with a focus on regions near the Ho Chi Minh Trail. These missions were framed as military objectives essential to winning the war. However, the collateral damage included the destruction of civilian farmland and contamination of water sources, leaving long-term impacts on the local population.
Herbicide Formulations and Application Methods
Agent Orange was not the only herbicide used during the war, but it was the most infamous. Containing 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid contaminated with TCDD, its formulation made it particularly toxic. Other herbicides, such as Agent Blue, targeted specific crops like rice, while Agent Purple was an earlier, less-refined version of Agent Orange.
These chemicals were applied using a variety of methods, from aircraft like C-123 cargo planes to handheld sprayers. The U.S. Army and Army Chemical Corps coordinated these missions, often focusing on areas of heavy combat. The widespread spraying left many regions of Vietnam contaminated, with hotspots of dioxin lingering in soil and sediment for decades.
The Children of Agent Orange
Agent Orange has since been implicated in gene mutations and chromosomal aberrations, causing health problems in those exposed and birth defects in their children. These birth defects run the gamut: children born with eyes wide apart or no eyes at all, cleft palates and bulging eyes, no lower bodies, missing vital organs, contorted arms and legs.
The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that one million people are disabled or ill due to Agent Orange poisoning. The Vietnamese government counts three million. Other estimates range up to 4.8 million. Severely disabled and chronically sick children are often born to seemingly healthy parents; both parent and child are included in this count.
Vietnamese children are at higher risk of birth defects than those of the 2.6 million U.S. veterans and uncounted Vietnamese Americans potentially exposed to the chemical. Although 300,000 of the exposed veterans have died from Agent Orange-related illnesses, they’ve tended to pass down increased risk of cancer and spina bifida to their children, not the completely disfiguring malformations many in Vietnam experience. One difference, suggested by this study, is that most of the affected U.S. veterans were men.
Another difference lies in the continued poisoning of Vietnamese soil. The thousands of square miles of food crops targeted in Agent Orange raids usually supplied Viet Cong soldiers. With their food supplies cut off, they would commandeer the food of nearby villages.
Sometimes raids would mistakenly target crops meant for non-combatants. The food supply of 600,000 Vietnamese was disrupted through 1970.
One thought on the American strategy was that it sought to empty out the countryside of possibly North-sympathetic villagers, and force a move to U.S.-dominated cities. Instead, during and after the war, many fed themselves from this contaminated land. In the 1970s, high levels of dioxin were found in the breast milk of South Vietnamese women.
Health Issues Linked to Agent Orange
Exposure to Agent Orange has had a profound impact on human health for both Vietnamese and U.S. army veterans and Vietnamese civilians. Respiratory cancer, ischemic heart disease, and blood pressure disease are some of the conditions linked to dioxin exposure, with studies emphasizing the heightened risks for those with early-life exposure and those who experienced direct exposure to combat. U.S. Veterans in the Blue Water Navy, who were stationed offshore, have also reported severe health complications, leading to their inclusion in programs like the Orange Registry.
While the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has supported studies on the health impacts of dioxins, many affected individuals still struggle to access adequate disability payments or compensation. Efforts to expand care for veterans continue to stall in the U.S. House of Representatives, as do initiatives to provide resources for affected Vietnamese communities.
Short-Term and Long-Term Health Effects
The health effects of Agent Orange exposure are far-reaching and persistent. In the short term, individuals exposed to the herbicide reported skin diseases such as chloracne and cutanea tarda, along with respiratory issues. Over time, these health risks evolved into more severe conditions, including lung cancer, bladder cancer, and ischemic heart disease. These diseases are linked to the dioxins present in Agent Orange, which disrupt normal cellular functions and contribute to tumor growth.
For Vietnam-era veterans, exposure to herbicides during military service has resulted in a range of health complications. Studies by the Institute of Medicine have confirmed correlations between dioxin exposure and several types of cancer, including lymphocytic leukemia. Women and those with early-life pesticide exposure have reported additional complications, from reproductive health issues to hypertension.
Specific Health Complications
Dioxins are a group of toxic chemicals that affect nearly every system in the body. Prolonged exposure can lead to neurological issues like dementia and increased risks of hairy cell leukemia. Many veterans and civilians alike have faced debilitating symptoms that hinder their ability to work or live independently.
Scientific findings highlight the significant risk of prostate cancer among those exposed to Agent Orange. Recognizing these harmful effects has led to disability compensation programs, with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs providing health exams and disability ratings for eligible veterans. However, similar efforts for Vietnamese people remain underfunded and inconsistent.
Public Health Concerns
Public health concerns related to Agent Orange focus on the persistent contamination of hotspots across Vietnam. These areas, heavily sprayed during the war, remain toxic due to lingering dioxins, posing ongoing risks to the local population. Contaminated soil and water have entered the food chain, leading to multi-generational health effects in communities reliant on these resources.
Advocacy for awareness and accountability has grown, with organizations like the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) and Health and Human Services highlighting the need for long-term solutions. Public health initiatives aim to mitigate the impacts of early-life exposure among children in affected regions, while Vietnam continues to push for international recognition and support. However, addressing the legacy of chemical warfare remains a challenge, requiring collaboration between Vietnam, the U.S., and global health organizations.
Awareness and Recognition of Agent Orange Exposure
Public awareness of the effects of Agent Orange has grown over the decades, but gaps in recognition remain. While organizations like the U.S. Department of Labor and the U.S. GAO have documented the risks associated with dioxin exposure, affected communities in Vietnam still lack access to adequate healthcare and support.
Community health initiatives have attempted to bridge this gap by providing resources and education. Programs focusing on environmental remediation and health risk reduction aim to address the ongoing contamination in Vietnam’s hotspots. Despite these efforts, many rural areas remain underserved.
Community Health Initiatives
Vietnam-based groups such as the Vietnam Agent Orange Relief & Responsibility Campaign have brought greater attention to this issue. These organizations advocate for better healthcare access and increased funding for disability claims in Vietnam. Local leaders in heavily affected areas, such as those near Bien Hoa Air Base, are working to rebuild their communities through education and support networks.
The U.S. Air Force and other military forces involved in the herbicide campaigns have initiated limited remediation efforts. However, the burden often falls on grassroots organizations, which emphasize empowering Vietnamese communities to manage the long-term effects of exposure.
The Legacy of Agent Orange in Vietnam
After decades of legal battles, Agent Orange-exposed U.S. veterans extracted some measure of compensation from the U.S. government. Although the U.S. has so far allotted close to $400 million to clean up Agent Orange-contaminated areas and treat some of its Vietnamese victims, it has stressed its lack of responsibility.
Also, it never paid any of the near $5 billion it pledged to Vietnam in the 1973 Paris Peace Accords (which were broken by both sides, but still). That would be worth more than $33 billion today — although Vietnam could have used that money far better in the lean years after the war.
2024 saw Rep. Barbara Lee (D-CA) put together a seventh attempt at the Victims of Agent Orange Relief Act. Like the others, which date back to 2013, this one didn’t receive the support that it needed.
You can send a postcard to your Congress member urging their support here.
Dow and Monsanto, two of the main suppliers of Agent Orange to the war effort, have both disavowed their responsibilities as well. It’s been shown that both companies concealed the chemical’s dangers from the U.S. government, who in turn concealed them from the public.
In 2018, Monsanto was ordered to pay $289 million to an American who developed terminal cancer due to the use of the company’s Roundup weedkiller product. This has set off another wave of Vietnamese protest, with both the Vietnamese government and French-Vietnamese journalist Tran To Nga pursuing claims.
There are some knotty issues in there about enemy combatants and whether the use of Agent Orange constitutes a war crime. But one thing should be obvious — these second, third and fourth generations suffering the consequences should at least see their burden reduced. Vietnam, with 1% of American GDP and 30% of the population, gives only $17 a month to 200,000 of the most severely disabled victims of this tragedy. These are people who often can’t care for themselves, which makes life difficult for their families too.
Environmental Impact on Land and Health
Agent Orange left an indelible mark on Vietnam’s landscapes and ecosystems. Dioxin contamination persists in soil and water, particularly in heavily sprayed regions like the Mekong Delta. These areas remain hotspots for environmental degradation, where toxic herbicides have seeped into the food chain, poisoning plants, animals, and humans.
Environmental remediation programs, funded in part by the U.S. government, aim to decontaminate these areas. Efforts have included soil treatment and the removal of contaminated sediment, but the scale of the damage makes complete cleanup an ongoing challenge.
Reconciliation Challenges Between the U.S. and Vietnam
While the U.S. has funded environmental and medical initiatives, significant political and social challenges remain. Programs like the Victims of Agent Orange Relief Act have stalled in the U.S. Congress, leaving many Vietnamese victims without meaningful assistance. The Vietnamese government has criticized chemical companies like Dow Chemical and Monsanto for their role in producing toxic herbicides, demanding accountability.
Despite these tensions, reconciliation efforts continue. Advocacy groups stress the importance of addressing past harm while building stronger diplomatic and social ties between the two nations.
Ongoing Advocacy and Support
Many children of Agent Orange are given up to orphanages. I wrote about one in 2014 called Stars of Vietnam.
Stars’ story began when its founder, Juergen Eichhorn, randomly stopped at an Agent Orange care facility to get out of a sudden monsoon rain. In this place, he found 1,000 Agent Orange disabled children at lunchtime, lining up to take food into their cupped hands. There were no tables, no chairs, no bowls. After he started to volunteer there, a room collapsed on six of the children. The initiative I was writing about was Stars’ fundraising for a new home for 100 of these children, blinded by their afflictions.
The durability of this curse was the thing that astounded me. Sometimes these children outlive their parents, and there is little in the way of structural support for them.
The answer has been the one that Vietnamese people have relied upon for years — they adapt. I met a woman in her 70s one Tết holiday who supported 30 or 40 Agent Orange orphans through the sale of medicinal mushrooms. We came to clean the home that she had built.
She was getting older, she told us. Who would watch over them when she was gone?
Resources for Vietnamese People Affected by Agent Orange
Vietnamese victims of Agent Orange often rely on a patchwork of support systems, ranging from government assistance to nonprofit initiatives. However, resources remain scarce compared to the scale of the problem. Advocacy groups like Medical and Scientific Aid for Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia provide critical medical care and rehabilitation services to those affected. These organizations also focus on raising awareness internationally to secure additional funding.
Programs led by the Vietnamese government provide minimal financial assistance — just $17 per month to the most severely disabled victims. This limited support underscores the need for broader, sustained aid. Efforts to build local capacity for healthcare and disability support are ongoing, with community leaders often stepping in to fill the gaps.
Organizations Dedicated to Health and Rights Advocacy
International advocacy groups have played a significant role in addressing the effects of Agent Orange. The Vietnam Agent Orange Relief & Responsibility Campaign brings victims to the U.S. to testify before Congress, advocating for increased funding and policy changes. Advocacy groups also focus on holding chemical companies like Dow Chemical accountable for their role in producing and distributing toxic herbicides.
Efforts are also directed at improving public understanding of the long-term consequences of dioxin exposure. By collaborating with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and other agencies, these organizations aim to bridge the gap between policy and practice, ensuring that victims receive the compensation and care they need.
The Future of Agent Orange in Vietnam
Things are changing slowly. The most contaminated sites are being remediated, and the cost is largely being footed by the U.S.
The Vietnam Agent Orange Relief & Responsibility Campaign accepts donations. They raise money to bring Vietnamese Agent Orange victims to the U.S. on speaking tours, and to address Congress if the opportunity arises.
Educating Americans about the horrors of Agent Orange is the only thing likely to move the needle, and deliver some measure of justice to the victims.
Click here to donate to the Vietnam Agent Orange Relief & Responsibility Campaign.
